NF-κB/IκB

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  1. PI3K/Akt Inhibitor, MAPK Inhibitor, NF-κB Inhibitor, Nrf2/ARE Activator

    JRN73958 is a potent inhibitor of the PI3K/Akt, MAPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways. This compound effectively reduces LPS/IFNγ-induced activation of these pathways, making it a valuable tool for investigating their roles in cancer biology, particularly in leukemia research. Additionally, JRN73958 acts as an Nrf2/ARE activator, further expanding its utility in studies related to oxidative stress and cell survival mechanisms.
  2. p38 MAPK Inhibitor

    Ganoderterpene A is a potent inhibitor of p38 MAPK, demonstrating significant anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic activity. It effectively attenuates LPS-induced inflammation and apoptosis by suppressing the MAPK and TLR-4/NF-κB signaling pathways in BV-2 cells. This compound is valuable for research applications focused on neuroinflammation and cellular stress responses.
  3. MAPK/NF-κB Inhibitor

    Masticadienonic acid is a selective inhibitor of the MAPK pathway (including p38, ERK, and JNK) and the NF-κB signaling cascade, while also acting as an agonist of the Nrf2 pathway. This compound effectively reduces the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6, and it restores the expression of intestinal tight junction proteins, including ZO-1 and occludin. Its regulatory effects on intestinal flora and inflammation make it suitable for research applications in inflammatory bowel disease and leishmaniasis.
  4. Potassium-competitive Acid Blocker

    KFP-H008 is an orally active potassium-competitive acid blocker that targets H+-K+-ATPase to inhibit gastric acid secretion. This compound has shown efficacy in reducing ethanol-induced gastric ulcer index and decreasing malonaldehyde levels, along with the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in vivo. KFP-H008 also downregulates p-p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB expression, demonstrating its potential in mitigating gastric inflammation. This reagent is valuable for research into acid-related diseases, including gastric ulcers and gastric epithelial cell damage.
  5. PAR2 Antagonist

    K-14585 is a peptide that acts as a competitive antagonist of protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2). It effectively inhibits PAR2-mediated interleukin-8 (IL-8) production, as well as phosphorylation of NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Additionally, K-14585 significantly reduces calcium mobilization induced by the PAR2 agonist SLIGKV in primary human keratinocytes, making it a valuable tool for studying PAR2-related biological processes and inflammatory responses.
  6. NF-κB/MAPK Inhibitor

    Isonardosinone is a nardosinone-type sesquiterpene that primarily targets the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. It effectively inhibits the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in lipopolysaccharide-induced BV2 microglial cells, demonstrating significant anti-inflammatory activity. This compound is valuable for research applications focused on inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases.
  7. p38 MAPK Inhibitor

    Anti-inflammatory agent 7 is a selective p38 MAPK inhibitor that modulates the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathway to inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production. This reagent demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells and in in vivo models, making it a valuable tool for studying inflammatory responses and developing therapeutic strategies for related diseases.
  8. Anti-Osteoporosis Compound

    Anti-osteoporosis agent-11, a selective anti-osteoporosis compound, targets osteoclasts to impede their differentiation. This compound exhibits potent inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 0.36 μM, effectively suppressing osteoclast formation, bone resorption, and the expression of osteoclast-specific genes. Its mechanism involves the blockade of RANKL-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and NF-κB signaling pathways, making it a valuable tool for research in osteoporosis treatment and bone metabolism studies.
  9. PI3K/PIKK Inhibitor

    PI3K/PIKK-IN-1 is a potent inhibitor of phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) and PI3-kinase-related kinases (PIKK). This compound is utilized in the development of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), making it valuable for therapeutic applications. It is particularly relevant in the research of various cancers, including breast cancer, multiple myeloma, Burkitt lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and non-small cell lung cancer, aiding in the exploration of targeted cancer therapies.
  10. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor

    (E)-Dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol is a dual inhibitor of human carbonic anhydrases IX and XII. This compound demonstrates significant biological activity by inhibiting NF-κB nuclear translocation in the connective tissues of healing areas. Its unique mechanism supports research in cancer biology and therapeutic approaches for inflammatory conditions.
  11. PPAR Agonist

    Mesalamine impurity P is an impurity derivative of Mesalamine, a specific agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). This compound exhibits significant biological activity by inhibiting p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1) and the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). It is utilized in research applications focusing on inflammatory bowel disease and metabolic disorders, contributing to the understanding of PPARγ modulation in therapeutic contexts.
  12. Stable Isotope

    5-Aminosalicylic Acid-d3 hydrochloride is a deuterium-labeled derivative of 5-Aminosalicylic Acid (Mesalamine), functioning as a stable isotope. It acts as a selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) agonist and also demonstrates inhibitory effects on p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). This compound is primarily utilized in research applications related to inflammation, colitis, and other gastrointestinal disorders.
  13. Arachidonic Acid Metabolite

    8(9)-EET is an arachidonic acid metabolite produced through the cytochrome P450 epoxide pathway. It serves as an effective substrate for cyclooxygenases COX-1 and COX-2 and exhibits significant biological activity by activating PPARα in HEK293 cells. Additionally, 8(9)-EET inhibits NF-κB activity induced by IL-1β, functioning both in a PPARα-dependent and -independent manner. The (8S,9R)-isomer of 8(9)-EET specifically induces vasoconstriction, leading to reduced renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate, making it a relevant compound for studies in renal and cardiovascular research.
  14. PPARγ Agonist

    17-Oxo-7(Z),10(Z),13(Z),15(E),19(Z)-docosapentaenoic acid serves as a PPARγ agonist, primarily impacting inflammatory processes. This electrophilic oxo-derivative of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is produced in activated macrophages through a COX-2-catalyzed mechanism during inflammation. Its biological activity includes modulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway, inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and reduction of nitric oxide synthesis, demonstrating significant anti-inflammatory properties. This compound is particularly valuable for research applications focused on inflammatory diseases and metabolic disorders.
  15. BRD 4/p38α/BRDT Inhibitor

    SB-284851-BT is a selective inhibitor of BRD4, p38α, and BRDT. It effectively inhibits BRD4-BD1 with an IC50 of 1.7 µM, p38α with a Kd of 0.47 nM, and exhibits additional inhibitory activity against BRDT and BRD4 with IC50 values of 18 µM and 3.7 µM, respectively. SB-284851-BT significantly reduces IL-8 production through p38α inhibition and downregulates crucial oncogenic pathways such as c-Myc and NF-κB via BRD4 inhibition. This compound has potential applications in cancer research and therapeutic development targeting cellular signaling pathways.
  16. BRD4 BD1 Inhibitor

    ZL0516 is a selective inhibitor of the BRD4 bromodomain 1 (BD1), demonstrating potent activity in modulating epigenetic regulation. It effectively suppresses inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) through inhibition of the BRD4/NF-κB signaling pathway, which plays a critical role in inflammation and immune responses. This compound is primarily utilized in research focusing on the development of therapeutic strategies for IBD and related inflammatory conditions.
  17. Inflammatory Pathway Inhibitor, Oxidative Stress Inhibitor, Cancer Pathway Inhibitor

    Matairesinol is an orally active bioactive compound that functions as an inflammatory pathway, oxidative stress, and cancer pathway inhibitor. It effectively inhibits the phosphorylation of MAPK, JNK, and NF-κB, while downregulating RANKL-induced NFATc1 expression and activity, and suppressing the activation of the PI3K/AKT/FOXO1 pathway. Matairesinol is applicable in research on sepsis-mediated brain injury, osteoporosis, heart failure, atopic dermatitis, and various cancer models.
  18. AMPK Activator

    IMM-H007 is a potent AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase) activator and TGFβ1 (transforming growth factor β1) antagonist. This compound exhibits cardioprotective effects by activating AMPK, which subsequently reduces endothelial inflammation through the inactivation of NF-κB and JNK/AP1 signaling pathways. Additionally, IMM-H007 regulates lipid metabolism, effectively resolving hepatic steatosis in high-fat diet-fed hamsters. It is suitable for research applications focused on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and inflammatory atherosclerosis.
  19. JNK Inhibitor

    Salicortin is a phenolic glycoside that functions as a JNK inhibitor. It effectively inhibits osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption by down-regulating the JNK and NF-κB/NFATc1 signaling pathways. Salicortin exhibits a range of biological activities, including anti-amnesic, anti-adipogenic, and immune-modulatory effects, making it a valuable tool for research in bone metabolism, neurobiology, and immunology.
  20. NF-κB Inhibitor

    Esculentoside H (EsH) is a saponin with inhibitory effects on the NF-κB signaling pathway. It exhibits notable anti-tumor activity, primarily through the modulation of TNF release. EsH has been shown to suppress colon cancer cell migration by inhibiting JNK1/2 and reducing the expression of matrix metalloproteinases-9 (MMP-9), making it a valuable tool for research in cancer biology and therapeutic interventions.
  21. NF-κB/AP-1 Inhibitor

    IQ-1S is an inhibitor of NF-κB and activating protein 1 (AP-1), exhibiting an IC50 of 1.8 μM. It demonstrates significant binding affinity for all three JNK isoforms, with Kd values of 87 nM for JNK3, 360 nM for JNK2, and 390 nM for JNK1. IQ-1S is valuable for researchers investigating the role of JNK signaling pathways and their implications in inflammation and cancer.
  22. JNK2 Inhibitor

    JNK2-IN-1 is a selective inhibitor of JNK2, displaying a dissociation constant (Kd) of 79.2 μM. This compound exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by reducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 through the inhibition of the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathway. JNK2-IN-1 has demonstrated therapeutic potential in alleviating symptoms associated with LPS-induced acute lung injury (ALI) and sepsis, making it valuable for research in inflammation and related diseases.
  23. Rare Sugar

    D-Psicose is a rare sugar that exhibits its biological activity primarily through the inhibition of p38 MAPK phosphorylation and MCP-1 expression. It effectively targets the AGEs/RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway, offering protective effects on pancreatic β-islets. Additionally, D-psicose has been shown to improve hyperglycemia and mitigate high-fat diet-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, making it a valuable reagent for research in metabolic disorders and diabetes.
  24. NF-κB p65 Inhibitor, p38 MAPK Inhibitor

    PSMα3 is an inhibitor of NF-κB p65 and p38 MAPK, playing a significant role in modulating inflammatory pathways. This compound forms membrane pores and interacts with the human insulin B chain, inhibiting insulin aggregation and contributing to cytotoxic effects through α-type amyloid-like fibril formation. PSMα3 is valuable for research on spondyloarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, insulin-derived amyloidosis, and infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus.
  25. NF-κB/MAPK Inhibitor

    NF-κB/MAPK-IN-1 is a potent inhibitor of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, exhibiting significant biological activity in the modulation of inflammatory responses. It effectively reduces nitric oxide (NO) production with an IC50 of 6.96 µM and inhibits the activation of iNOS, COX-2, ERK, and p38 signaling pathways induced by LPS. This compound is valuable for research applications focused on inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis.
  26. NF-κB/MMP9/MAPK Inhibitor

    Isoliquiritin apioside is an inhibitor of NF-κB, MMP9, and MAPK signaling pathways. It has been shown to significantly reduce PMA-induced MMP9 activity and suppress the activation of MAPK and NF-κB. This compound is relevant for research applications focused on cancer biology, particularly in the investigation of mechanisms underlying cell invasiveness and angiogenesis in both cancer and endothelial cells.
  27. Stable Isotope

    D-Psicose-d is a deuterium-labeled form of D-Psicose, which serves as a stable isotope for research applications. This rare sugar is known for its oral bioactivity and demonstrates inhibitory effects on p38-MAPK phosphorylation and MCP-1 expression. D-Psicose also modulates the AGEs/RAGE/NF-κB signaling pathway, offering protective effects on pancreatic β-islets and improving metabolic conditions such as hyperglycemia and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease induced by high-fat diets.
  28. Stable Isotope

    Fumaric acid-13C2 is a stable isotope-labeled version of fumaric acid, an unsaturated dicarboxylic acid involved in the citric acid cycle. This compound plays a critical role in energy metabolism by facilitating ATP production. Additionally, fumaric acid exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway via p38 MAPK modulation. Its applications extend to the investigation of conditions such as pregnancy-induced hypertension, making it a valuable tool for metabolic and physiological research.
  29. IRAK4 Inhibitor

    UR241-2 is a selective inhibitor of IRAK4, targeting the IL-1–induced IRAK1/4 signaling pathway. It effectively suppresses NF-κB activation and the phosphorylation of p65 and p38, contributing to a reduction in leukemia stem cell clonogenicity. UR241-2 also serves as a valuable ligand for developing PROTAC degraders targeting IRAK4, making it a suitable tool for research in acute myeloid leukemia.
  30. Diterpenoid Quinone

    Dehydromiltirone is a diterpenoid quinone that exhibits significant anti-inflammatory properties. It modulates the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways, thereby preventing liver injury and reducing neuroinflammatory responses. Additionally, Dehydromiltirone has been shown to inhibit platelet aggregation and is relevant for research applications in osteoporosis.
  31. Sea Green Triarylmethane Food Dye

    Fast Green FCF is a sea green triarylmethane food dye known for its absorption maximum between 622 and 626 nm. This compound exhibits inhibitory effects on α-synuclein aggregation, the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide, P2X4 receptors, and the TLR4/Myd88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Fast Green FCF is utilized as a quantitative stain for histones at alkaline pH following acid extraction of DNA, as well as a protein stain in electrophoresis applications. Additionally, it has shown potential benefits in addressing cognitive impairment, mood disorders, pain allergies, and reproductive function.
  32. Fluoresce Localization Anti-GBM Agent

    IR-Crizotinib is a near-infrared dye-conjugated NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) inhibitor that effectively crosses the blood-brain barrier. This compound demonstrates selective fluorescent localization in intracranial glioblastoma (GBM) models, with an IC50 of 3.381 μM. In addition to its fluorescent capabilities, IR-Crizotinib inhibits growth and invasion of glioma cells both in vitro and in vivo, making it a valuable tool for cancer research and therapeutic development.
  33. HDAC1 Inhibitor, NTR/pH Fluorescence Inducer

    HDAC-IN-101 is a selective inhibitor of HDAC1, exhibiting an IC50 of 65 nM against human HDAC1. This compound effectively inhibits cancer cell proliferation by targeting HDAC1 activity. In addition, HDAC-IN-101 is metabolically activated by overexpressed nitroreductase to produce H6AQ, which displays fluorescence under low pH conditions. Its unique properties make it valuable for applications in cancer research and cellular imaging studies.
  34. Sea Green Triarylmethane Food Dye

    Fast Green FCF free acid is a triarylmethane food dye known for its acid resistance. It exhibits significant biological activity by inhibiting α-synuclein aggregation, as well as interfering with Aβ, P2X4 receptor, and TLR4/Myd88/NF-κB signaling pathways. This reagent is extensively utilized as a quantitative stain for histones under alkaline conditions following DNA acid extraction, and it serves as a protein stain in electrophoresis applications. Additionally, Fast Green FCF free acid has been implicated in enhancing cognitive function, alleviating depression, mitigating pain allergies, and supporting reproductive health.
  35. TRPA1 Inhibitor

    Aurothiomalate disodium acts as a TRPA1 inhibitor, effectively blocking NF-κB activation and inhibiting iNOS expression. This compound fosters the M2 transformation of macrophages and enhances the expression of TREM-2 and arginase-1. Aurothiomalate disodium is applicable in research concerning liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and arthritis, providing insights into inflammation and tissue repair mechanisms.
  36. Alkaloid

    β-Carboline-1-carboxylic acid is a β-carboline alkaloid that acts as an inhibitor of phosphodiesterase and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, demonstrating an IC50 of 96 µM for cAMP phosphodiesterase. It exhibits significant biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic, antitumor, and antibacterial properties, with cytotoxic effects on tumor cells. Furthermore, this compound inhibits inflammation via the NF-κB/p65 pathway and reverses epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). It also shows potent antibacterial effects against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, with IC50 values of 47.70 μg/mL and 19.17 μg/mL, respectively.
  37. LUBAC Inhibitor

    HOIPIN-8 is a highly potent inhibitor of the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex (LUBAC), exhibiting an IC50 value of 11 nM. As a derivative of HOIPIN-1, it offers significantly enhanced inhibition, demonstrating a 255-fold increase in potency for petit-LUBAC, along with 10-fold and 4-fold increases in inhibiting LUBAC and TNF-α-mediated NF-κB activation, respectively. HOIPIN-8 serves as an essential research tool for investigating the cellular functions of LUBAC and its role in various biological processes.
  38. NF-κB Degrader

    EN450 is a cysteine-reactive covalent molecular glue degrader targeting NF-κB. By engaging with allosteric C111 in the E2 ubiquitin ligase UBE2D, EN450 facilitates the formation of a ternary complex involving UBE2D and NFKB1. This interaction leads to the degradation of NF-κB, resulting in notable anti-proliferative effects through a Cullin E3 ligase and proteasome-dependent mechanism. EN450 serves as a valuable tool for research involving NF-κB signaling and its implications in cancer biology.
  39. Anti-inflammatory agent

    Hentriacontane is a long-chain alkane that acts as an anti-inflammatory agent by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway. Its bioactivity encompasses not only anti-inflammatory effects but also antitumor and antibacterial properties. This compound is valuable for research applications focused on inflammation modulation, cancer biology, and antimicrobial studies.
  40. Colistin Adjuvant

    Colistin adjuvant-1 is a potent colistin adjuvant that enhances the activity of colistin against Gram-negative bacteria. It functions primarily by inhibiting NF-κB, exhibiting an IC50 of 0.209 μM. This compound is valuable for research applications aimed at combating antibiotic resistance and investigating combination therapies in bacterial infections.
  41. Na+/K+-ATPase Inhibitor

    (-)-γ-Cuparenol is a sesquiterpene compound that acts as an inhibitor of Na+/K+-ATPase, with an IC50 value of 23.6 μg/mL in porcine models. It has demonstrated the ability to reduce phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-induced activation of NF-AT and NF-κB in Jurkat cells, indicating potential applications in immunoregulation. Additionally, (-)-γ-Cuparenol exhibits antibacterial activity against certain Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria, as well as weak inhibitory effects on Candida albicans. This compound is relevant for research exploring cardiovascular diseases and bacterial infections.
  42. Antibiotic

    Epoxyquinomicin C is an antibiotic derived from the soil bacterium Amycolatopsis sp. It displays anti-inflammatory properties, particularly in models of collagen-induced arthritis, making it a valuable tool for studying inflammatory pathways. Additionally, Epoxyquinomicin C serves as a synthetic precursor for the NF-κB inhibitor DHMEQ, facilitating research into therapeutic applications targeting NF-κB signaling.
  43. Flavouring Agent

    Vanillic acid is a flavoring agent primarily derived from various edible plants and fruits, including Angelica sinensis. It is known to inhibit the activation of NF-κB, contributing to its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. Additionally, vanillic acid exhibits chemopreventive effects, making it a valuable compound for research in inflammation and cancer prevention studies.
  44. Bacterial Inhibitor/Anti-inflammatory Agent

    Cyclo(L-Pro-L-Val) is a peptide-based compound that functions as a bacterial inhibitor and anti-inflammatory agent. It exhibits antimicrobial activity against plant pathogens, such as R. fascians, and demonstrates significant inhibition of critical signaling molecules like IKKα, IKKβ, NF-κB, iNOS, and COX-2, contributing to its anti-inflammatory properties. This compound is valuable for research applications in developing biopesticides and investigating inflammation-related diseases.
  45. Organic Ketone

    2-Undecanone is an organic ketone that exhibits antibacterial properties by inhibiting bacterial chaperone systems, thereby disrupting the refolding process of heat-inactivated proteins. Additionally, it mitigates asthmatic inflammation and airway remodeling through blockade of the NF-κB pathway, while activating the Nrf2 pathway to reduce oxidative damage and offer protection against lung cancer induced by Benzo[a]pyrene. This compound is relevant for research into cancer, asthma, and infectious diseases.
  46. Anti-Aging/Anti-Cancer Agent

    8-O-Acetylharpagide is an iridoid glycoside compound that primarily targets anti-aging and anti-cancer pathways. At low doses, it demonstrates significant anti-aging properties, while high doses induce apoptosis and necrosis in cancer cells, effectively downregulating anti-apoptotic proteins such as Akt, p-Akt, and Bcl-2. Metabolism studies indicate that 8-O-acetylharpagide undergoes processes like demethylation, hydrolysis, and glucuronidation in rats, leading to the formation of active metabolites that attenuate the AKT/NF-κB/MMP9 signaling axis. Additionally, it exerts vasoconstrictive effects through the activation of vascular α-adrenoceptors, further contributing to its biological activity.
  47. Anti-inflammatory Agent

    Scutellarein tetramethyl ether (4',5,6,7-Tetramethoxyflavone) primarily functions as an anti-inflammatory agent. This bioactive compound, derived from Eupatorium odoratum, demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, pro-coagulant, and anti-tumor properties. It modulates the NF-κB signaling pathway to exert its anti-inflammatory effects and enhances coagulation time through the endogenous coagulation pathway. Additionally, Scutellarein tetramethyl ether has been shown to inhibit the proliferation of HepG2 liver cancer cells, with an IC50 value of 20.08 μg/mL, making it relevant for cancer research and therapeutic studies.
  48. TrxR1 Inhibitor

    Evernic Acid is a potent inhibitor of thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1), demonstrating significant antiproliferative effects on human breast cancer cells. It disrupts the NF-κB signaling pathway by preventing p65 nuclear translocation and IκBα phosphorylation, which subsequently reduces inflammatory mediators. In addition to its role as an antioxidant and neuroprotective agent, Evernic Acid protects neurons from oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, it inhibits key enoyl reductases in Plasmodium falciparum and downregulates quorum sensing and biofilm formation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, showcasing its antibacterial and antifungal properties. This compound is valuable for research focused on breast cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and microbial infections.
  49. Antibiotic Agent

    Cloxacillin sodium is a β-lactam antibiotic and a potent β-lactamase inhibitor with an IC50 of 0.04 µM. It exhibits significant antibacterial activity, particularly against Staphylococcus aureus, and can effectively attenuate the S. aureus-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting the activation of MAPK, NF-κB, and NLRP3-related proteins. This compound is relevant for research in antimicrobial resistance and inflammation pathways.
  50. Antibiotic

    Streptazolin is an antibiotic that enhances bacterial clearance and promotes the secretion of immunostimulatory cytokines by macrophages in vitro. It activates the macrophage NF-κB pathway through the PI3K signaling cascade, contributing to its immunomodulatory effects. This compound is valuable for research applications aimed at understanding antibiotic efficacy and macrophage behavior in immune responses.

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